Psychology and Motivation Essay

What atomic number 18 nigh of the limitations of handed-down progressi wizs to indigence? Discuss this question, referring to at least three specific c ar theories and considering the historical context in which these ideas were developed or adopted. motivating in widely distri anded refers to the result of behavioural changes in reaction to internal or external stimuli. Analysis foundation be d star at the undivided psychological take aim in addition. The studies sample to understand communitys behaviour and surveil afterward up with general conclusions from individual cases. (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2009) Some classified motivating as either a product or a process (Winne & Marx, 1989). In viewpoint as a product, motivation refers to willingness, desire, or condition of stimulation. On the other hand, it fanny also be known as the cognitive and affective processes where level of motivation or goal-directed behaviour is determined (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). From this viewpoint, motivation refers non just to an land up state, but also to the cognitive processes that control how the leftover state is achieved (Winne & Marx, 1989).This perceptive contradicts with the hypothesis to which one relates motivation with movement or performance (Alexander & Winne, 2006). Numerous theories engender been made on motivation. Some of the traditional approaches from close to quoted theorists would be the classic possibleness from Frederick W. Taylor and the traditional motive approach pioneered by Henry Murray. Taylor advocated the theory that people will be highly motivated if their reward is tied directly to performance. It creates assumption that one would assume the path that is close financially profitable and that money is the best motivation. Studies have shown that financial opportunity puke definitely result in improvements curiously in transmission lines with upseter socio-economic rankings. It cannot be denied that money can motivate most people, but many an(prenominal) a(prenominal) have risen above it. Example would be religious missionaries, whereby they renounced financial security for greater spiritual blessedness (Lorenzana, 1993).Murrays work contributed most to the roots of the achievement motive tradition. Summarizing from his classic work, Explorations in Personality, he uses the concept of contend, to explain motivation in deuce rule senses. eldest, whenone is in a state of adopt, fulfilling end situations usually come to mind, resulting in one experiencing a sense of desire or wish. go for will lead to intention and purpose and succeedingly to strivings. Whereas the bulk of Murrays theoretical attention foc utilize on ineluctably as motivational processes, he also used the term need to describe individual differences in hidden personality. In the second sense, a need indicates a say-soity or readiness to respond toward a specific end under particular stimulus conditions. The postulate ac count for majority of motivated behaviour. Viscerogenic call for such as need for food that involves bodily tensions and satisfactions, and psychogenetic need such as need for affiliation that involve psychological tensions and satisfactions be directly link to the achievement area.The first is the need of achievement, which he defined as the desire to accomplish something difficult to excel one self and to surpass others, to increase self-regard by successful physical exercise of talent. The second is the need for in deflectance, defined as the desire to avoid humiliation, quit embarrassing situations or to avoid conditions which may lead to belittlement. Although for subsequent motivation look forers, Murrays need proved too numerous and too broadly defined, his influence in the development of the field is unmistakable (Efklides, Kuhl & Sorrentino, 2001). The inquiry and finding of Frederick Herzberg and Abraham H. Maslow is the basis of much of the work in the field of hum an motivation. In Year 1941, Maslow witnessed a pathetic and beggarly civilian parade, after the bombing of Pearl Harbor, in that locationafter Maslow developed his theories of motivation through ceremonial occasion by distinguishing the two types of motives deficiency motives and growth motives.The previous involve carry reduction and filling an internal lack, composition the latter correspond to a higher level of functioning, including pleasurable tension increases and fulfilling ones comical potential (Ewan, 2003). Building on Murrays work, Maslow form one of the most well(p) recognized theories of motivation. He set that there is a stratified relationship between the assorted involve that one have and the prefatorial needs have to be met before the higher level of needs can act as behavioural motivators. The power structure of needs from the concluding to highest is physiological (physical survival) needs, soundty and security needs, social needs, self-esteem needs and self-actualization needs (Maslow, 1943) (Refer to Appendix 1). However, there were limitations to the hierarchy ofneeds model. In reality, people do not work necessarily in accordance to the levels. They are little structuralizing in satisfying their needs. Many can overcome some needs not being met and go on to higher level. Different people with different cultural backgrounds and in different situations may have different hierarchies of needs too.Furthermore, his theory is almost non-testable. The concept is quite vague with many important questions unanswered such as all the needs to be included in each category. Although Maslow clearly states the characteristics of the self-actualizing individual, he has chosen these features principally on his own subjective judgment using little quarry statistical analysis. And due to the limitations, his perspective generated very little experimental research (Carducci, 2009). Herzbergs two-factor theory of motivation was based on M aslows hierarchy of needs. (Hollway, 1991) In a research conducted by Herzberg and his associates on 200 engineers and accountants, they identified two groups of factors which give explanation on motivation known as the hygiene factor ( melodic phrase context) and motivator factor (job content).The hygiene factor consisted environmental factors such as profits, supervision, status, job security, working conditions, company policy and establishment and interpersonal relations. They named this as hygiene factors as it aids to remove potential cause of dissatisfaction in job situation. Although these factors will not motivate people, they must, however, be present or dissatisfaction will arise. In the other group of factors, Herzberg and his associates revealed what they considered to be real motivators or satisfiers. These factors include the work itself, recognition, and advancement, the possibility of growth, responsibility and achievement (Lorenzana, 1993) (Refer to Appendix 2). I n short, hygiene factors allow one to satisfy staple fibre needs and avoid pain, while motivators reflect peoples need for esteem and self-fulfillment (Sargent, 1990).Herzbergs were criticized by some researchers as the theory was largely based on research with accountants and engineers, so the findings may not apply to shop-floor rentees or clerical staff (Sargent, 1990). The age group, gender, job range and other significant factors might be overlooked in conducting the research. Besides, salary might be one of the motivation factors too, not just to square off dissatisfaction. One prominent attempt to show the connection between different models of motivation and managerial practice was made byDouglas McGregor in his book, The large-minded Side of Enterprise (1960). He wrote in his book that Man is a absent animal as soon as one of his needs is satisfied, another appear in its place. McGregor was greatly impacted by Maslow, twist on Maslows hierarchy of needs framework, he came up with two sets of assumptions about people conjecture X and Theory Y. He potently believed that effective leadership depends on management assumptions about the nature of management and people in general (Sargent, 1990)Theory X stress that the bonnie mankind is naturally lazy, dislike work of any kind and will avoid it whenever possible. One has no ambition and prefers to be led rather than lead and take responsibility. One can be self-centred and degage to the needs of the organization. Moreover, he is gullible and not particularly bright or judicious. Worst, he is resistant to change. They need a mixture of carrot and buzz off to perform (Lorenzana, 1993) (Refer to appendix 3). Theory Y, on the other hand, defend that the mean(a) mankind is not laid-back, nor is he without urge to assume responsibility. He can be self-motivated, and find self-satisfaction in work if the right kind of environment is provided by managers. They are people not by nature passive or resi stant to organizational needs (Lorenzana, 1993). One helplessness of Theory X is that it exercises a form of social control characterized by strict obedience to the authority of the organization, and maintenance and enforcement of control through the employ of oppressive dealings including intimation and mockery of employees.Theory X and Theory Y could hardly be applied as perfect models in the real world. It cannot be accepted too literally due to the wave-particle duality of unrealistic extremes (Stevens, 2009). Back to where I started from, a more philosophical bursting charge can be used to approach motivation as some theorists see motivation as a much more despotic experience. Motivation itself can form behaviours that lead to increases in future motivation. Maslows concept of self-actualization could be applied within this framework (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2009). Many theorists install on one another theory in aspiration to come up with a more comprehensive approach to m otivation, as well as through the research of psychology and behaviour of one. Though there might be limitations to each theory, they are still vastly used by the modern organization, usually a mixed choices of theories. Substantial improvements in the effectiveness should be seen as the social science will inhabit to contribute to the development ofmotivation.Physiological needfullyPhysiological needs are the very basic needs such as air, water, food, sleep, sex, and so on When these are not satisfied we may feel sickness, irritation, pain, discomfort, and so forth These feelings motivate us to alleviate them as soon as possible to establish homeostasis. formerly they are alleviated, we may think about other things.Safety NeedsSafety needs have to do with establishing stability and consistency in a chaotic world. These needs are mostly psychological in nature. We need the security of a home and family. However, if a family is dysfunctional, family members cannot move to the co ntiguous level because they have safety concerns. Love and belongingness have to wait until they are no longer in fear. Many in our society bitch out for law and order because they do not feel safe enough to go for a walk in their neighbourhood. Unfortunately many people, particularly those in the inner cities, are stuck at this level.Need to workLove and sense of belonging are next on the ladder. cosmos have a desire to belong to groups clubs, work groups, religious groups, family, gangs, etc. We need to feel loved (non-sexual) by others, to be accepted by others. Performers appreciate applause. We need to be needed. We see numerous examples in publicise where our need for group belonging is tied to consumption of a particular product.Esteem NeedsThere are two types of esteem needs. First is self-esteem which results from competence or mastery of a task. Second, theres the attention and recognition that comes from others. This is similar to the sense of belonging level however, wanting admiration has to do with the need for power. People, who have all of their lower needs satisfied, often drive veryexpensive cars because doing so raises their level of esteem.Self-ActualizationThe need for self-actualisations is the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming. People who have everything can maximize their potential. They can attempt knowledge, peace, aesthetic experiences, self-fulfilment, and oneness with God etc. It is usually middle-class to upper class students who take up environmental causes, go off to a monastery, etc. (Maslow, 1970)Appendix 2There are two classes of factors that influence employee motivation intrinsic factors and the extrinsic factors. The intrinsic factors were also called the motivator factors and were related to job satisfaction. The extrinsic factors were called hygiene factors and were related to job dissatisfaction. Motivators (intrinsic factors) led to job satisfaction be cause of a need for growth and self actualization, and hygiene (extrinsic) factors led to job dissatisfaction because of a need to avoid unpleasantness. The negative or positive KITA or kick in the ass approach to employee motivation yields short- range results, but rarely generates any actual motivation.In fact, to call it an approach to motivation is to clearly misunderstand motivation as Herzberg understood it. KITA yields movement the scheme of pain not motivation. Positive KITA, in the form of raises and incentives reduces time fatigued at work, inflates wages and benefits, and overemphasizes human relations. K-I-T-A techniques fail to instill self-generating motivation in workers. Job content factors, such as achievement and responsibility, are motivators, while job environment factors are hygiene or KITA factors. Motivators are the severalise to satisfaction. (F. Herzberg, Management Review, 1971, pp. 2-5)Appendix 3Theory XTheory Xs hard-line approach is grounded in coer cion, implicit threats and intimation, close supervision, and intimately command and control. Such anapproach typically results in hostility, purposely low output, and hard-line union demands. In contrast, a softer approach might garden truck an ever-increasing request for more rewards and ever decreasing work output.ReferencesAlexender, P.A, Winne, P.H 2006, Handbook of tuitional Psychology (2nd ed.), Lawrance Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Mahwah refreshed Jersey, USA Carducci, B.J 2009, The Psychology of Personality, 2nd ed., Wiley-Blackwell, UK Efklides, A, Kuhl, J & Sorrentino, R.M 2001, Trends and Prospects in Motivation Research, Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands Ewan, R.B 2003, An Introduction to Theories of Personality, 6th ed., Lawrance Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Mahwah New Jersey, USA Hollway, W 2001, Work Psychology and Organizational Behaviour Managing the Individual at Work, sensible Publications Ltd, London Lorenzana, C.C 1993, Management Theory And Practice, Rex Printing Company, Inc., Florentino St. Quezon City, Philippines Maslow, A.H 1970, Motivation and Personality, Harper and Row, New York Maslow, A.H 1943, A Theory of Human Motivation, Psychological Review, Vol.50 Motivation., Encyclopedia Britannica, 2009. Encyclopedia Britannica, viewed on 21Sep 2009, . Pintrich, P.R, & Schunk, D.H 2002, Motivation in education Theory research, and application, 2nd ed., Merrill Prentice Hall, top(prenominal) Saddle River New Jersey, USA Sargent, A 1990, Turning People On The Motivation Challenge, Short Run Press Ltd, Great Britain Stevens, D.J 2009, An Introduction to American Policing, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, LLC, USA Winne, P & Marx, R 1989, A Cognitive-processing Analysis of Motivation with Classroom Tasks, In C.Ames R.Ames (EDs.) Research on motivation in education (Vol 3.), FL Academic Press, Orlando